Thursday 1 March 2012
MASA
Concrete Slab Production
First Class,
Efficient,
Trend Setting.
Masa – your partner for the successful production of building materials.
With intelligent and flexible solutions, Masa leads its customers to success.
Experience, reliability and passion are the basis for a long lasting partnership.
www.masa-group.com04 Turn-key Plants: Quality at each stage.
06 The Slab Press UNI 2000: For today and the future.
08 Surface Treatment: The perfect finish.
10 Modern Slab Design: Wide variety for increased sales.
12 Take-off, Transport and Packaging: Professional handling.
14 Service: There is no limit to our partnership.
Contents
Note
In general Masa plants are equipped with all the necessary safety guarding to local standards. For reasons of
clarity, some photos are shown without safety guards.
02 Partnership
The secret of our success is the future profitability of our customers.
Masa is the world’s leading manufacturer and supplier of plants, machinery and
components for the building materials industry. Our experience, the quality of
our products and the constant dialogue with our partners have contributed to the
success of our customers worldwide.
The planning and design of our plants encompass all the basic principles which
are fundamental to “Engineered in Germany”.
Quality: Proven technology, customised solutions and durable equipment
Profitability: Economical – without compromising efficiency
Safety: Comprehensive safety solutions in consultation with the customerQuality is the sum of experience and the pursuit of perfection. Quality management: Passion for solid and reliable solutions.
Experience
is our strength.
Flexibility
takes us forward.
Masa is able to look back on more than 100 years of
company history. Our experience, the quality of our products
and the constant dialogue with our partners, have
contributed to the success of our customers worldwide.
Our head office with departments for development and
production is situated in Andernach, between Frankfurt/M
and Cologne. A second location, as well as large departments
for development and production is situated in Porta Westfalica. A centre for engineering for sand lime brick plants is
based in Dorsten. Furthermore subsidiaries for sales and
services are established worldwide: in USA, China, Russia,
India and Italy, as well as Dubai, responsible for the Middle
East.
Success is a strong basis
Throughout our long company history, we have been
significantly influenced by the many developments in the
building materials industry. The experiences gained over the
years in both technical and functional capacities now benefit
both the customer and ourselves. This continuity means the
customer can be safe in the knowledge that Masa has
created solutions which are built to last and can be quickly
modified on demand.
Flexible in global markets
As a result of globalisation on the world economy, we have
benefitted from our growing reputation for providing
solutions. Different markets present specific requirements
for which we develop individual solutions. In the end, there
are no two products alike; every single solution is based
and optimised on the individual wishes of the customer.
Safety and environment protection
On designing a plant, safety is of paramount importance,
whilst incorporating ease of operation. Another aspect of vital
importance is protection of the environment, hence Masa’s
solutions for power efficiency, dust protection and the
reduction of noise emission.
Company 03Whilst the slab press is the heart of the plant, Masa also provides the batching
and mixing equipment to feed concrete to the paving slab machine, slab take-off
devices incorporating direct washing facilities, curing systems, slab secondary
processing and packaging – in fact, the complete ‘know-how’ for the manufacture
of slabs. A distinct advantage for our customers is that large turn-key plants or
single components are all from one supplier – Masa, your partner, through planning, design, manufacture, assembly, commissioning, training and continuous
support during production.
The commercial success of each production plant is achieved by careful planning,
taking into account the requirements and opportunities available on site for longterm growth from the outset. For this, our designers specify the capacities and
layouts of equipment, as well as organising the production process. Turn-key plants
are assembled with standard components, which can be combined to achieve
individual solutions. Utilising standardised components wherever practical results
in short delivery times.
Turn-key Plants:
Quality at each stage.
01
02
03
04 Concrete Slab Production
Production
• Dosing
• Pressing
• Take-off
Cubing
• Transport: Storage
• Transport: Surface enhancement
• Cubing / wrapping
Preparation
• Raw material storage
• Raw material dosing and mixing
Transport of
finished products
Grinding line
Cubing
Chamfer
grinding
Chamfer
grinding
03. Cubing05
Standard plus trend: The Masa plant concept for the
manufacture of concrete slabs enables both conventional and specialised textures and surface finishes
to be produced, utilising the integration of secondary
processing lines. The enhancement facilities allow
our customers to react rapidly to new market trends
and individual market requirements.
Masa control systems
When designing a new plant, Masa attaches great importance to the individual
requirements of the customer and the speed at which technology is advancing.
Masa has achieved solutions with the utmost flexibility, using its own unique
concept of visualisation, enabling simple operation of the equipment and
incorporating different levels of password access and security.
Raw
material
delivery
Silo line for aggregates / Dosing line
02. Production Curing
Back mix
feeding
device
Face mix
feeding device
Stacking
device
Destacking
device
Slab turning Transport to slab enhancement line
device
Drying line
Shot-blasting unit Transport
Transport Curing chamber
Slab press
01. Preparation
Pressing
station06 Slab Press
The Slab Press UNI 2000:
For today and the future.
With its solid portal construction and robust design
concept, the UNI 2000 concrete slab press incorporates
flexibility with high productivity. Other construction design
details such as the servo turntable drive and patented compressed air feeding system enable very short cycle times
with low wear and tear.
The portal construction design of this type of press ensures
maximum use of the available pressing power. Another
important construction feature is the face mix feeding device
utilising a hose type batcher giving a uniform face mix layer.
The servo turntable drive provides optimum acceleration and
braking resulting in short cycle times. The back mix feeding
device complete with feed box and belt feeder guarantees
exact slab thickness. The control system for the press and
ancillary equipment is designed to achieve high production
with the utmost flexibility.
The slab press UNI 2000: fast and robust.07
Efficient for all quantities: Capacities from 2400 to
7600 slabs per 8 hours depending on slab size and
quantities required.
The portal construction ensures maximum use of the available pressing power. Servo turntable drive provides optimum acceleration and braking.
Back mix feeding device with feed box and belt feeder for exact slab thicknesses. High-capacity hydraulic unit, pumps and pressure accumulators for short cycle times.
Type Number of
stations
Pre-compaction Main pressing
station
Effective area**
max. (mm)
Max.* production
capacity per 8-hour
shift (pieces)
2000/300/6 6 – 300 t 1x500x500 2.400
2000/500/6 6 – 500 t 1x500x600 2.400
2000/600/7 7 600 t 2x400x600 4.800
2000/800/7 7 800 t 2x500x500 4.800
2000/1000/7 7 1000 t 4x400x400 7.600
* Cycle times depend on types of raw materials used for 2-layer slabs, 4 cm thick, without direct washing.
** Other sizes possible by agreement.
Slab press UNI 2000 Surface Treatment:
The perfect finish.
Masa can supply secondary processing equipment to provide
a wide range of different paving slab textures and finishes.
Grinding and polishing: Masa grinding and polishing lines are
designed to grind a wide range of different aggregate sizes
and types of raw materials (hard/soft stone). Special attention
is paid to minimise the energy and tool costs. Depending on
the degree of polished surface required, different numbers of
grinding stations are used. Frequency-controlled electric drives
enable the adjustment of the optimum working speed for each
product.
Shot-blasting: Shot-blasting units can provide various high
quality surface textures. For example, expensive coloured
face mix materials can be exposed in the shot-blasting
process. This process provides a ‘roughened’ surface which
then has very good non-slip properties.
Calibrating and chamfering: Calibration stations enable the
paving slabs to be machined to a uniform thickness so that
the chamfers are then ground evenly. This ensures that the
concrete slabs have a perfect visual appearance and can then
be used in high quality applications.
08 Slab Enhancement
Calibrating station: Diamonds for an exact slab thickness.09
Slab turning device: Always the right way up. Shot-blasting line: Excellent appearance and non-slip surface.
Grinding line: Precision at optimum working speed. Drying line before (shot-blasting line and) packaging line.
Every slab a quality item: Integrated into the
production plant, the surface enhancement line
enables the creation of individual slab designs with
various materials, colours and surface textures. In
accordance with individual requirements, the fresh
slabs can be ground, polished or shot-blasted.Modern Slab Design:
Wide variety for increased sales.
10 Range of Products
Chamfering device: Important for edge grinding. Chamfer grinding: Exact contours.
Carborundum station: Precision is what counts.
A Masa slab making plant with additional enhancement
components is the basis for the production of a wide range of
products. This enables the manufacturer to react quickly to
market requirements with special designs, finishes and
textures and have the ability to introduce their own
creations and set market trends.
Masa plants, with their sophisticated slab making technology
and surface enhancement lines provide the customer with the
possibility to combine different raw materials, colours and surface finishes time and time again. They can also experiment
with different surface structures and secondary processing
techniques. The number of options is endless.
Depending on market requirements, a wide variety of
different products can be produced enabling the slab
manufacturer to increase his share in the market place with
exclusive surface textures. The efficient production and flexibility of patterns and textures is a positive incentive to invest in a Masa plant and ancillary equipment for the
production of concrete slabs. 11
This small selection of slabs shows the various
product finishes available, with and without secondary
processing.
Structured face plate: Small paving block structure Small paving block structure
Ground surface
Ground and shot-blasted surface, pattern masking
Fine washed texture
Ground and shot-blasted surface, coarse aggregate
Natural stone texture
Ground and shot-blasted surface, mid-size aggregate
Marbled and ground12 Ancillary Equipment
Take-off, Transport and Packaging:
Professional handling.
In addition to the slab press Masa can also supply all the
necessary handling systems for take-off, transport, hardening
and packaging of the slabs. Each individual plant can be
tailored to suit customer’s individual requirements – whether
a semi-automatic plant with forklift truck transport or a fully
automatic circulation system.
Freshly pressed slabs can be stacked either horizontally or
vertically, dependant on the type of transport device specified. A direct washing unit can also be integrated if required.
Careful handling of the green slabs is crucial for the next
stages of the production process, to ensure, ultimately, a first
class product. All components are designed to quality specifications and can be installed as flexible modular systems.
Depending on the level of automation, the products are
transported fully automatically to the curing chambers.
After curing, the slabs are transported directly to the
packaging line or via a separate enhancement line.
Vacuum take-off device: Gently lifted.13
Racking system with programmed pallet stack transfer device. Slab package take-off station: Ready for transport.
The hardened slabs are taken off carefully. Direct washing device: The natural aggregates are exposed.
Slab package transfer device: Powerfully grabbed and gently placed.
Co-ordinated at all stages: A fully automatic circulation plant ensures state-of-the-art concrete slab
production. Smooth transport of the slabs within
the plant plays an important role here.14 Service
Machining center Own fitters: Masa competence on site.
Service: There is no limit to
our partnership.
Whether you purchase a complete production line or a single
component, it is the start of a long lasting relationship with
Masa. Our service does not stop with the handover of the
equipment to the customer – but lasts for the lifetime of the
machine.
Assembly and commissioning
After delivery, plants are installed and commissioned by
our own qualified and experienced engineers.
After sales service
With programmed visits by our experts, a preventative
maintenance programme is agreed to maintain high productivity and minimise downtimes.
Training of operators
During the installation and commissioning of the equipment,
the operators are given training and familiarisation with all
the plant components and after the final test run, should be
able to run the plant themselves at the agreed productivity.
Product advice
Masa’s vast experience of manufacturing concrete elements
ensures both visual and technical qualities of the finished
product.
Service hotline
Masa has a 24 hour Service hotline for the customer to assist
in the diagnosis of any malfunctions or when problems in the
production system occur.
Online Tele service
Today, technical support for the equipment is provided
in most instances online. Updates and programme modifications can also be done via modem, without having Masa
engineers on site.
Spare parts service
With our flexible system and worldwide spare parts locations, if necessary, we are able to supply quickly and cost
effectively within 24 hours, unless the parts have to be
manufactured specially.Plants for concrete blocks production. Plants for sand lime brick production. Plants for AAC blocks production.
Masa – your partner for the successful production of building materials.
Masa is the world’s leading manufacturer and supplier of plants, machinery
and components for the building materials industry. This brochure describes
equipment for the manufacture of concrete blocks – other brochures are also
available, giving an overview of capacities, plant layouts and components for
the manufacture of concrete blocks, sand lime bricks and AAC blocks.
Masa – the one company to talk to for all solutions. A complete range of
machinery to produce all types of building materials.
Masa GmbH
Masa-Straße 2
56626 Andernach
Germany
Phone +49 2632.9292-0
info@masa-group.com
www.masa-group.com
Masa-Henke
Maschinenfabrik GmbH
Osterkamp 2
32457 Porta Westfalica
Germany
Phone +49 5731.680-0
info@masa-henke.com
www.masa-group.com
Masa-Henke
Maschinenfabrik GmbH
Engineering Zentrum
Barbarastraße 70
46282 Dorsten
Germany
Phone +49 2362.9516-0
info@masa-henke.com
www.masa-group.com
PROPERTIES OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE MANUFACTURED WITH FLY ASH, FURNACE BOTTOM ASH, AND LYTAG
77
PROPERTIES OF LIGHTWEIGHT CONCRETE
MANUFACTURED WITH FLY ASH, FURNACE
BOTTOM ASH, AND LYTAG
Yun Bai, Ratiyah Ibrahim, and P.A. Muhammed Basheer
Queen’s University, Belfast, U.K.
Abstract
Fly ash (FA), furnace bottom ash (FBA) and Lytag (LG) were used in the current
study to replace ordinary portland cement (OPC), natural sand (NS) and coarse
aggregate (CA), respectively, and thereby to manufacture lightweight concrete
(LWC). Two control mixes containing no replacement materials were designed with
a 28-day compressive strength of 20 N/mm
2
and 40 N/mm
2
. For each compressive
strength, three different mixes, viz. (a) 100%OPC+100%NS + 100%CA, (b)
100%OPC + 100%FBA + 100%LG and (c) 70%OPC + 30%FA + 100%FBA +
100%LG, were manufactured with slump in the range of 30 ~ 60 mm. The density,
compressive strength, pull-off surface tensile strength, air permeability, sorptivity
and porosity of the concretes were investigated.
The results indicated that it is possible to manufacture lightweight concrete with
density in the range of 1560-1960 kg/m
3
and 28-day compressive strength in the
range of 20-40 N/mm
2
with various waste materials from thermal power plants.
However, the introduction of FBA into concrete would cause detrimental effect on
the permeation properties of concrete. With part of OPC replaced with FA, the
strength decreased, but the permeability of the resulting concrete improved.
1. Introduction
Lightweight concrete (LWC) has been successfully used since the ancient Roman
times and it has gained its popularity due to its lower density and superior thermal
insulation properties [1]. Compared with normal weight concrete (NWC), LWC can
significantly reduce the dead load of structural elements, which makes it especially
attractive in multi-storey buildings. However, most studies on LWC concern “semilightweight” concretes, i.e. concrete made with lightweight coarse aggregate and
natural sand. Although commercially available lightweight fine aggregate has been
used in investigations in place of natural sand to manufacture the “total-lightweight” 78 International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology
concrete [2, 3], more environmental and economical benefits can be achieved if
waste materials can be used to replace the fine lightweight aggregate.
Lytag is one of the most commonly used lightweight aggregates, which is
manufactured by pyro-processing fly ash (FA), while FA and furnace bottom ash
(FBA) are two waste materials from coal-fired thermal power plants. They are,
respectively, lighter than traditional coarse aggregate, OPC and natural sand. The
previous investigations carried out by the authors on using FBA from a thermal
power plant in Northern Ireland as a sand replacement material indicated that FBA
could be a potential fine aggregate in NWC for certain applications [4, 5]. However,
the application of FBA in structural LWC is not well defined. Therefore, the current
study investigates the possibility of manufacturing structural LWC with FA, FBA
and Lytag
2. Experimental Program
2.1 Materials
The cement used was the Class 42.5N portland cement supplied by Blue Circle, U.K.,
complying with BS 12: 1991 [6].
For the control mixes, the coarse aggregate used was 10 mm crushed basalt and the
fine aggregate used was medium graded natural sand complying with BS 882: 1992
[7]. Both materials are from the local sources in Northern Ireland. They were oven
dried at 40
o
C for 24 hours and cooled to 20
o
C before using in the manufacture of
concrete. The FA and FBA used were supplied by Kilroot Power Station in Northern
Ireland, U.K. The FBA was dried firstly in an oven at 105
o
C for 24 hours and then
allowed to cool for 24 hours at 20
o
C. The FBA that passed 5 mm sieve (hereafter
FBA sand) was used to replace natural sand. The Lytag used was with a size of 8
mm and was supplied by Finlay Concrete Products, Northern Ireland, U.K. It was
also oven dried at 40
o
C for 24 hours and cooled to 20
o
C before casting. Table 1
reports the chemical compositions of OPC, FA, FBA and Lytag. The specific gravity
and 1-hour water absorption of basalt, natural sand, FBA sand and Lytag are reported
in Table 2. Fig. 1 presents the particle size distribution of basalt, natural sand, FBA
sand and Lytag.
2.2 Mix proportions
Two control mixes containing OPC, basalt and natural sand were designed for a 28-
day compressive strength of 20 N/mm
2
(Series M) and 40 N/mm
2
(Series H)
respectively, for a slump in the range of 30-60 mm. For each control mix, 30% of
OPC, 100% of natural sand, and 100% of basalt were then replaced with FA, FBA,
and Lytag, respectively. The binder content (OPC or OPC + FA) was kept the same
as that of the control mix for each series when the natural sand and basalt were
replaced with FBA and Lytag, respectively. Yun Bai, Ratiyah Ibrahim, and P.A. Muhammed Basheer 79
Table 1: Chemical composition of cement, PFA, FBA, and Lytag
Oxide
composition (%)
OPC FA FBA Lytag
SiO2 20.6 59.01 61.78 53.19
Al2O3 5.7 22.8 17.8 26.3
Fe2O3 2.9 8.8 6.97 10.26
CaO 63.6 2.38 3.19 2.02
MgO 1.8 1.39 1.34 1.45
Na2O 0.12 0.74 0.95 0.96
K2O 0.75 2.8 2 3.99
SO3 3.2 0.27 0.79 -
Cl 0.01 0.01 - -
LOI 1.5 6.7 3.61 4
Table 2: Property of aggregates
Property Basalt Natural sand FBA sand Lytag
Specific gravity (S.S.D.) 2.91 2.66 1.58 1.52
1-hour water absorption (%) 1.1 1.1 32.2 12.31
0
2 0
4 0
6 0
8 0
10 0
0 .0 1 0 .1 1 10 10 0
Nom i n a l ape rtu re s i z e o f te s t s i e ve (m m )
Cumula tive percentage
passing (%)
FBA Sand Natural Sand Lytag Basalt
Fig. 1: Particle distribution of FBA sand, natural sand, Lytag, and basalt
For each series, three different mixes were studied. Mix 1:
100%OPC+100%NS+100%CA (control). Mix 2: 100%OPC+100%FBA+100%LG.
Mix 3: 70%OPC+30%FA+100%FBA+100%LG. The water content (and therefore
W/C) of Mix 2 and Mix 3 was adjusted by carrying out trials so that the workability
measured in terms of slump was in the range of 30-60mm. The volume ratio between
the fine aggregate and the coarse aggregate for each test series was kept the same as 80 International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology
that obtained for the respective control mix. The resulting mix proportions, which
were used in this investigation, are reported in Table 3.
Table 3: Mix proportions (kg/m
3
) and properties of fresh concretes
M ix No W/C Ceme nt FA
Fre e
Wate r
Sand FBA Basalt Lytag
Me asure d
Slump
(mm)
Me asure d
Air Content
(%)
M1 0.65 330 - 215 820 - 1040 - 27 2
M2 0.4 330 - 132 - 552 - 616 51 5
M3 0.32 231 99 106 - 562 - 627 43 5
H1 0.47 460 - 215 715 - 1025 - 50 1.2
H2 0.32 460 - 147 - 477 - 602 30 5
H3 0.29 322 138 133 - 473 - 599 34 5
2.3 Batching and mixing
For each mix, the required quantities of the constituents were batched by weight. The
water required for 1-hour absorption by the aggregates (basalt, natural sand, FBA
sand and Lytag) was added to the mix water in addition to the free water shown in
Table 3. Different mixing procedures were used for NWC and LWC, which are
described below.
Mixing procedure for NWC (control): The manufacturing of NWC was carried out
based on reference 8. Approximately half the basalt, all the natural sand and the
remaining basalt were added, in this order, evenly into the pan. The aggregates were
mixed for 30 seconds. The mixing was continued and about half the mixing water
(i.e. free water as shown in Table 3 plus that required for 1 hour water absorption)
was added during the next 15 seconds. After mixing for a total of 3 minutes, the
mixer was stopped and the contents were left covered for 15 minutes. The cement
was then added evenly over the aggregate. The mixer was started and the mixing was
continued for 30 seconds. The mixer was then stopped and any material adhering to
the mixer blades were cleaned off into the pan. Without delay, the mixing was
recommenced and the remaining mixing water was added over the next 30 seconds.
The mixing was continued for 3 minutes after all the materials were added.
Mixing procedure for LWC: The procedure given in the Lytag Information
Document [9] was used to modify the manufacturing procedure for the LWC. About
half the mixing water (free water as shown in Table 3 plus that required for 1 hour
water absorption) was added. Then all the Lytag and all the FBA were added in this
order, evenly into the pan [9] and mixed for 3 minutes. The mixer was stopped and
left covered for 15 minutes. Thereafter, the procedure was the same as that for the
NWC. Yun Bai, Ratiyah Ibrahim, and P.A. Muhammed Basheer 81
2.4 Specimen preparation and curing
For each mix, nine 100-mm size cubes were cast to determine the compressive
strength at the age of 3, 7, and 28 days. At 28 days, the same cubes used for
compressive strength were also used to test the density at saturated-surface dried
(SSD) condition. Three 250x250x110-mm slabs were cast to investigate pull-off
tensile strength, permeation properties and porosity of the concrete at the age of 28
days.
All specimens were cast in two layers and compacted on a vibrating table until air
bubbles appearing on the surface stopped. They were left in the mould in the
laboratory at 20(±1)
o
C for one day and then removed from the moulds. After that,
they were cured in water at 20(±1)
o
C for two days, and then wrapped in polythene
sheet and left in the laboratory at 20(±1)
o
C until they were tested. (The three-day
specimens were tested immediately after removing from the water bath, instead of
wrapping in polythene sheet.)
2.5 Details of tests
For each mix, the air content and workability (in terms of slump) of the fresh
concrete were measured. The air content was measured by following a procedure
given in BS 1881: part 106: 1983 [10]. The slump test was carried out in accordance
with BS 1881: Part 102: 1983 [11].
At the age of 3, 7, and 28 days, the compressive strength was determined by crushing
three 100-mm cubes in accordance with BS 1881:Part 116: 1983 [12] and an average
of the three values was obtained. Prior to the compressive strength test at the age of
28 days, the cubes were used to test the SSD density by following BS 1881: Part 114:
1983 [13].
At the age of 28 days, the slabs were dried at 40(±1)
o
C and 22(±1)% Relative
Humidity (RH) in a drying cabinet for two weeks and then cooled to room
temperature 20(±1)
o
C for one day. The air permeability and water absorption
(sorptivity) were tested on three slabs per mix by using the “Autoclam Permeability
System” [14] on the mould finished face and average values of both the air
permeability and the sorptivity were calculated. The surface tensile strength was
measured by carrying out the Limpet pull-off test [15] at two locations on the mould
finished surfaces of the three slabs immediately after the permeation test. All the six
results were averaged and reported. After the pull-off test, one Φ75-mm core was
taken from each of the slab and the water absorption test was carried out by
following BS 1881: Part 122: 1983 [16]. The porosity of the concretes was then
calculated based on the volume of the voids occupied by the absorbed water. 82 International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Properties of fresh concrete
Fig. 2 shows the free water content for different mixes. It can be seen that when the
FBA sand and Lytag were used to replace natural sand and basalt, respectively, the
water demand of the concrete decreased. This is attributable to the spherical/round
particle shape of both FBA sand and Lytag [4, 17], which, compared to the angular
particles of sand and basalt, have a “ball-bearing effect” and thus reduce the water
demand of the fresh concrete. When 30% of the OPC was replaced with FA in both
series, there was also a water reduction compared to the mix 2. This is again
attributable to the “ball-bearing effect” of the FA particles. Therefore, it can be seen
from the above results that when FA, FBA and Lytag were used to manufacture
lightweight concrete, the water demand of the concrete decreased.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
M H
Series
Free Water (kg/m3)
100%OPC+100%NS+100%CA
100%OPC+100%FBA+100%LG
70%OPC+30%FA+100%FBA+100%LG
Fig. 2: Free water content of NWC and LWC
3.2 Density
Table 4 reports the density of hardened concrete at saturated-surface dried (SSD)
condition measured at 28 days. It can be seen that when natural sand and basalt were
replaced with FBA sand and Lytag respectively, there was a significant reduction in
the density of hardened concrete for both series. This suggests that the low density of
both FBA sand and Lytag is beneficial to produce LWC. When FA was used in mix
3 to replace 30% of the OPC, the density was further reduced. This, again, is due to
the lower density of FA compared to that of OPC. Thus, it can be concluded that the
low density of FA, FBA and Lytag is a benefit for manufacturing lightweight
structural concretes. In the current study, the SSD density in the range of 1560-1960
kg/m
3
was achieved.
Yun Bai, Ratiyah Ibrahim, and P.A. Muhammed Basheer 83
Table 4: Density (kg/m
3
) of hardened concrete at 28 days (SSD)
M1 M2 M3 H1 H2 H3
1977 1725 1559 2471 1952 1819
3.3 Compressive strength
Fig. 3 presents the compressive strength of both series at 3, 7, and 28 days. Fig. 4
illustrates the relationship between the 28-day compressive strength and the SSD
density. In Fig. 5, the contribution of different mix to the compressive strength is
compared in terms of the specific strength, i.e., ratio of strength to relative density.
From Fig. 3 it can be seen that when the FBA sand and Lytag were used to replace
natural sand and basalt respectively, different effects can be observed for series M
and H. In series H, the compressive strength decreased from H1 to H3 at all the ages.
However, in series M, this trend was visible only for the 3-day results. At the age of
7 and 28 days, there was an increase in strength when the NS and CA were replaced
with FBA and Lytag, respectively.
As indicated in Fig. 4, except for one data point corresponding to mix M1, there is a
linear relationship between the density and the compressive strength, i.e. the
compressive strength is directly proportional to the SSD density of hardened
concrete. This indicates that the lightweight was achieved at the cost of reduction in
the compressive strength. Nevertheless, it is still possible to manufacture LWC with
SSD density in the range of 1560-1960 kg/m
3
and 28-day compressive strength in the
range of 20-40 N/mm
2
.
0
20
40
60
3 7 28
Age (Days)
Comp. Strength (N/mm2)
M1 M2 M3
(a) Series M
0
20
40
60
3 7 28
Age (Days)
Comp. Strength (N/mm2)
H1 H2 H3
(b) Series H
Fig. 3: Compressive strength of NWC and LWC 84 International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology
20
30
40
50
60
1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400 2600
Density (kg/m
3
)
Comp. Strength (N/mm2)
M1 M2 M3 H1 H2 H3
Fig. 4: Compressive strength vs. density
0
5
10
15
20
25
M H
Series
Specific Strength
100%OPC+100%NS+100%CA
100%OPC+100%FBA+100%LG
70%OPC+30%FA+100%FBA+100%LG
Fig. 5: Specific strength of NWC & LWC
Fig. 5 indicates that the specific strength for M2 and M3 are higher than M1, which
suggests that for the same weight of concrete, LWC provided marginally higher
compressive strength than NWC. For series H, the specific strength for H2 and H3
are lower than H1. However, the difference was small. Therefore, it can be
concluded that FA, FBA and Lytag can be favorably used to manufacture medium
strength LWC. In the case of high strength concrete, these replacements would result
in decrease in compressive strength of the concrete.
3.4 Pull-off surface tensile strength
Fig. 6 presents the results of the pull-off test. It can be seen that, for Series M, the
surface tensile strength of M2 and M3 are higher than that of M1, and that of M2 is
equal to that of M3. However, for Series H, the pull-off tensile strength of H2 and
H3 are lower than that of H1, and the value for H3 is also lower than that for H2.
Thus, in terms of the pull-off surface tensile strength, FA, FBA and Lytag have a
beneficial effect on medium strength LWC, but a slightly adverse effect on highstrength LWC. Yun Bai, Ratiyah Ibrahim, and P.A. Muhammed Basheer 85
0
2
4
6
M H
Series
Surf. Tens. Strength
(N/mm2)
100%OPC+100%NS+100%CA
100%OPC+100%FBA+100%LG
70%OPC+30%FA+100%FBA+100%LG
Fig. 6: Surface tensile strength of
NWC and LWC
3.5 Permeability
The near surface permeation property
was evaluated by using the “Autoclam
Permeability System.” Figs. 7 and 8
show the air permeability and
sorptivity results, respectively.
It can be seen that when FBA sand and
Lytag were used to replace natural
sand and basalt to manufacture LWC,
the air permeability dramatically
increased. From Fig. 2, it can be seen
that, due to the water reduction effect
of FBA and Lytag, the free water of
mix 2 for both
series is lower than mix 1. Since the binder content was the same for all the mixes in
each series, the decreased free water content would result in a decreased free waterbinder ratio, which should have decreased the air permeability [18]. In addition,
although the particles of Lytag are quite porous [17], they have no effects on the air
permeability of LWC [19]. Thus, the increased air permeability should be
attributable to the porous particles of the FBA sand [5]. However, the air
permeability indices of Mix 3 for both series are lower than mix 2, but still higher
than mix 1. The decrease of the air permeability indices of mix 3 can be considered
to be due to the physical filling effect and pozzolanic reaction of FA, leading to the
densification of the pore structure. This reveals that the increased air permeability
caused by the porous FBA particles can partly be compensated by the FA. However,
since the slabs were only 28 days old, the pozzolanic reaction has not fully
developed. Thus, a long-term study is required in order to investigate any possible
further beneficial effect of FA on the LWC.
0.00
0.40
0.80
1.20
1.60
M H
Series
Air Perm. Index
(ln(bar)/min)
100%OPC+100%NS+100%CA
100%OPC+100%FBA+100%LG
70%OPC+30%FA+100%FBA+100%LG
Fig. 7: Air permeability of NWC & LWC
0.00
2.00
4.00
6.00
M H
Series
Sorpt. Index
(M3*10-7/min0.5)
100%OPC+100%NS+100%CA
100%OPC+100%FBA+100%LG
70%OPC+30%FA+100%FBA+100%LG
Fig. 8: Sorptivity of NWC & LWC 86 International Workshop on Sustainable Development and Concrete Technology
The sorptivity result in Fig. 8 indicates that when natural sand and basalt were
replaced with the FBA sand and Lytag, the sorptivity indices for both series were
higher than the corresponding control (mix 1). This is mainly attributable to the
porous FBA and Lytag particles. However, when FA was used in mix 3 to replace
30% of the OPC, the sorptivity did not decrease as it did in air permeability. Thus,
the FA has no beneficial effect on reducing the sorptivity of LWC at 28 days. On the
contrary, the sorptivity increased. Again a long-term study is required to investigate
any further beneficial effect.
0.00
4.00
8.00
12.00
M H
Series
Porosity (%)
100%OPC+100%NS+100%CA
100%OPC+100%FBA+100%LG
70%OPC+30%FA+100%FBA+100%LG
Fig. 9: Porosity of NWC & LWC
3.6 Porosity
The porosity result is reported in Fig. 9.
The trend was similar to that of air
permeability in Fig. 7, i.e., when natural
sand and basalt were replaced by the FBA
sand and Lytag respectively, the porosity
of LWC increased. However, when FA
was used in mix 3 to replace cement, the
porosity was lower than mix 2, but still
higher than mix 1 for both series. The
result further confirms that whereas FBA
sand and Lytag increase the porosity of
LWC, the FA would partly compensate
the detrimental effect caused by FBA sand
and Lytag on the porosity and air
permeability.
4. Conclusions
• By using FA, FBA and Lytag, it is possible to manufacture lightweight
concrete with density in the range of 1560-1960 kg/m
3
.
• In terms of contribution to the compressive strength by per unit weight of
concrete, FA, FBA, and Lytag can be beneficially used to manufacture
medium strength concrete.
• LWC incorporating FBA and Lytag resulted in an increase in the
permeability; by replacing 30% of OPC with FA, the permeability of LWC
could be improved.
• In order to manufacture durable LWC, measures should be taken to further
improve the permeation property.
Acknowledgments
The FBA for this research was supplied by Connexpo (N.I.) Ltd and, the Lytag was
supplied by Finlay Concrete Products (N.I.). The facilities provided by the School of Yun Bai, Ratiyah Ibrahim, and P.A. Muhammed Basheer 87
Civil Engineering at Queen’s University, Belfast, are gratefully acknowledged. Mr.
Yun Bai is in receipt of the Overseas Research Students Award at Queen’s and is on
leave of absence from Ningxia Communication Department, China. Ms. Ratiyah
Ibrahim was funded by the Government of Brunei.
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The Advantages of Precast Concrete Wall Systems | |
 In Europe, homes with precast concrete walls have been built for more than two decades. In the U.S., its use is spreading into residential construction now that precast concrete structures such as buildings, parking garages, and bridges are commonplace.Precast systems can adopt almost any aesthetic, incorporating a variety of colors and textures, or emulating natural stone. By crafting systems that not only look great, but also act as structural walls and support floor loads, builders and designers can reduce material redundancy—and project costs. To build a precast concrete home, concrete plants use the house plans from the builder to produce all exterior walls, complete with embedded steel reinforcing, electrical wiring and rough openings, and foam insulation. The panels are then transported to the homesite and lifted into place by cranes. Workers are connect the panels to the foundation and each other.
As with all concrete wall systems, precast concrete homes have many attributes that contribute to "green design." Precast wall systems provide environmental benefits during construction, after occupancy, and if the home is demolished.
Environmental benefits during construction
 During the life of the structure
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LIGHT WEIGHT CONCRETE
Foaming
Every liter of foaming agent is diluted 30 times with water, which expands another 22 times in the foaming generator.-------------
Print this pageLight weight concrete
What is it ?
Light weight concrete - or foamed concrete - is a versatile material which consists primarily of a cement based mortar mixed with at least 20% of volume air. The material is now being used in an ever increasing number of applications, ranging from onestep house casting to low density void fills.
Foamed concrete has a surprisingly long history and was first patented in 1923, mainly for use as an insulation material. Although there is evidence that the Romans used air entrainers to decrease density, this was not really a true foamed concrete. Significant improvements over the past 20 years in production equipment and better quality surfactants (foaming agents) has enabled the use of foamed concrete on a larger scale.
Lightweight and free flowing, it is a material suitable for a wide range of purposes such as, but not limited to, panels and block production, floor and roof screeds, wall casting, complete house casting, sound barrier walls, floating homes, void infills, slope protection, outdoor furniture and many more applications.
Foamed concrete has a surprisingly long history and was first patented in 1923, mainly for use as an insulation material. Although there is evidence that the Romans used air entrainers to decrease density, this was not really a true foamed concrete. Significant improvements over the past 20 years in production equipment and better quality surfactants (foaming agents) has enabled the use of foamed concrete on a larger scale.
Lightweight and free flowing, it is a material suitable for a wide range of purposes such as, but not limited to, panels and block production, floor and roof screeds, wall casting, complete house casting, sound barrier walls, floating homes, void infills, slope protection, outdoor furniture and many more applications.
Not everyone knows that density and compressive strength can be controlled. In the light weight concrete this is done by introducing air through the proprietary foam process which enables one to control density and strength precisely.
Normal concrete has a density of 2,400 kg/m3 while densities range from 1,800, 1,700, 1,600 down to 300 kg/m3. Compressive strengths range from up to 40 mpa down to almost zero for the really low densities. Generally it has more than excellent thermal and sound insulating properties, a good fire rating, is non combustible and features cost savings through construction speed and ease of handling.
The technology is the result of over 20 years of R&D, fine tuning the product and researching the possible applications. It is used in over 40 countries world wide today and has not reached the end of its possible uses.
Normal concrete has a density of 2,400 kg/m3 while densities range from 1,800, 1,700, 1,600 down to 300 kg/m3. Compressive strengths range from up to 40 mpa down to almost zero for the really low densities. Generally it has more than excellent thermal and sound insulating properties, a good fire rating, is non combustible and features cost savings through construction speed and ease of handling.
The technology is the result of over 20 years of R&D, fine tuning the product and researching the possible applications. It is used in over 40 countries world wide today and has not reached the end of its possible uses.
Frequently asked questions
How strong is it ?
Strength is a relative term. Concrete mixes should be designed based on end use. High compressive strength is useful where deadload or abrasion are factors, but are unnecessary for roofs and non-structural partitions. All concrete is deficient in tensile and shear strengths, however these are supplemented through structural reinforcement. Compressive strength can be made up to 40 Mpa, exceeding most structural requirements.What are the advantages of pre-formed foam ?
The pre-formed foam process offers excellent quality control and assurance of specified density. Preformed foam, unlike gas-forming chemicals, assures a consistent three-dimensional distribution of the engineered air cell system. Pre-formed foam produces a consistent matrix of relatively small air cells which are more desirable than a disorganized matrix of different size bubbles often created with the gas method of reactive admixtures.What are the disadvantages of lightweight concrete, compared to typical concrete ?
In the lower density ranges lightweight concrete does not develop the compressive strength of plain concrete. While this may be a disadvantage in plain concrete applications, it is an advantage in a lightweight concrete application. It should be considered that lightweight concrete and plain concrete are typically used for different types of applications. Each form of concrete exhibits a unique family of performance characteristics. Each should be utilized in the appropriate type of project. But a high strength of 33 Mpa has been achieved with a high cement content mix.Is segregation a problem ?
Unlike plain concrete there is little to segregate in lightweight concrete which makes segregation a moot point. The lightweight concrete equivalent to segregation would be a collapse of the air cell system and a volume reduction in material. To prevent this one should use the most stable liquid foam concentrates and treat the mixed lightweight concrete with some care in placing. Fresh lightweight concrete is not fragile and can be pumped for long distances.Is lightweight concrete chemically compatible with common additives ?
Lightweight concrete is compatible with common concrete construction additives; however, most common admixtures are added to plain concrete to effect a change in the characteristics of the concrete that are not applicable to lightweight concrete application performance. As an example, lightweight concrete needs no air entrainment or finishing aids; however, colour admixtures and strength enhancing admixtures work well if they are applicable to the project.What additives are common to cellular concrete ?
Fiber reinforcement, Heat-of-hydration reducers (iced water or chemicals), Compressive strength enhancers, Colouring pigments or colour enhancing admixturesWhat is the correct water to cement ratio for the cement water slurry ?
Typically, a .5 water to cement ratio slurry consisting of two parts cement to one part water is typically used as a base mixture for lightweight concrete. The water cement ratio varies according to specific project requirements. Note that lightweight concrete obtains it's natural fluidity from the air bubble structure, not from excess water content.Does lightweight concrete mix contain either fine or course aggregate ?
Lightweight concrete may also contain normal or lightweight, fine and/or coarse aggregates. The rigid foam air cell system differs from conventional aggregate concrete in the methods of production and in the more extensive range of end uses. Lightweight concrete may be either cast-in-place or pre-cast. Lightweight concrete mix designs in general are designed to create a product with a low density and resultant relatively lower compressive strength (when compared to plain concrete). When higher compressive strengths are required, the addition of fine and/or course aggregate will result in a stronger lightweight concrete with resultant higher densities. We should note that most lightweight concrete applications call for a lightweight material. When considering the addition of course aggregate, one must consider how appropriate this heavy aggregate will be to a project, which typically calls for lightweight material. The inclusion of aggregate, particularly course aggregate may be counter productive to the materials intended performance.What type of cement is appropriate for lightweight concrete ?
Lightweight concrete may be produce with any type of portland cement or portland cement & fly ash mixture. The performance characteristics of type II, type III and specialty cements carries forward into the performance of the lightweight concrete.Is it appropriate to add fly ash to the cement and water slurry for lightweight concrete ?
Fly ash added to the cement does not adversely affect the basic hardened state of lightweight concrete. Infusing and supporting the lightweight concrete with the air cell system is a mechanical action and is not problematic with fly ash or other additives. Note that some fly ash mixes may take longer to set than pure portland cement applications. Mixes with large percentages of fly ash may take an very extended time to set up. High carbon content fly ash such as typical "bottom ash" should be generally avoided in most cellular or plain concrete mixes.Is it appropriate to reinforce cellular concrete with synthetic fibers ?
Synthetic fiber reinforcement is a mechanical process and does not have any effect on the chemistry of concrete. It is therefore perfectly acceptable to design fiber reinforced lightweight concrete. Fiber reinforced cellular concrete is becoming a standard material for roof decks and Insulated Concrete Form (ICF) construction. Oil palm fibers are also successfully being added and it produces a very good design mix of 900 kg density per meter cube most suitable for high rise buildings wall panels.Is it appropriate to reinforce cellular concrete with steel fibers ?
There is no chemical or mechanical reason not to reinforce lightweight concrete with steel fibers. However, most lightweight concrete applications require a lightweight material. Most steel fiber concrete applications require heavy, high compressive strength steel fiber reinforced concrete. It would seem somewhat unlikely that an application would require steel fiber reinforce lightweight concrete, but there is no technical reason not to design a steel fiber reinforced lightweight concrete.Do the bubbles in lightweight concrete collapse, reducing its volume ?
Not with well engineered liquid foam concentrates. The pre-formed foam lightweight concrete products made from top quality liquid foam concentrates do not collapse. Air cell stability is the mark of a superior foam concentrate and foam generator combination. Which is not to say that all lightweight concrete products are stable. Particular care should be taken to test foams from water pressure type foam generators, and gas-off chemical products. The proposed pre-formed foam for an application should be tested for stability or certified for stability before actual project placement.Densities and Strengths
One of the most useful features of a lightweight concrete system is the system's ability to be manufactured in a wide range of low densities and strengths. Application requirements for lightweight concrete range from very light density low strength fill dirt replacement to higher strength structural lightweight concrete. To accommodate this wide range of performance properties lightweight concrete has developed a mix design chart, which will illustrate the basics of making this wide range of materials from just one lightweight concrete concentrate. With a lightweight concrete foam generator and a single liquid foam concentrate the contractor now has available to them a wide variety of cost effective, high performance, lighter lightweight concrete products.What are the different densities and strengths available ?
Lightweight concrete exhibits a much lighter density than typical aggregate concrete. Typical plain concrete has a density of 2400 kg/m3, lightweight concrete densities range from 300 kg/m3 to 1800 kg / m3. Lightweight concrete is an insulator and can be used in a variety of applications which require an insulating material that can also exhibit some integrity and strength. Lightweight concrete at its lightest density is still more stable and strong than well compacted soil. When replacing soils, lightweight concrete can be designed to provide whatever strengths and characteristics needed for the soil stabilization project. Some soil engineers lightheartedly refer to lightweight concrete used in Geotechnical stabilization projects as "designer dirt." They know that lightweight concrete can be specified to easily exceed whatever compacted soil requirements are needed.How much does lightweight concrete cost ?
Cost effective lightweight concrete varies in price by geographical area and by application requirements such as density and strength requirement. A typical concrete structure project will be much less expensive cubic meter to cubic meter when compared to plain concrete due to labour savings, less cost of forming works, less steelworks, eliminate brickworks, cement renderings work and the price savings is very substantial when compare to conventional methods.Is lightweight concrete suitable for long-term use as a marine float device ?
At the lower densities, lightweight concrete will float, and in many cases float indefinitely. Because of its limited impact and abrasion resistance, lightweight concrete used for marine flotation should be encased and used for the fill of a float. For example, a marine float could be made with sealed drums filled with low-density lightweight concrete.Where do I purchase lightweight concrete ?
Lightweight concrete is purchased through a licensing system. For Australia the master licensee is LYNKFS Pty Ltd and can be contacted through its representatives.How to produce lightweight concrete ?
The pre-formed foam is added to the cement slurry and mixed in the concrete mixer or in a continuous process. From that point, lightweight concrete is placed in any way that a fluid mix can be transported. Pumping is the most common method of placement. Tailgate ready mix truck delivery, bucket cranes, wheelbarrows, hand carried buckets and any other acceptable method of delivering a fluid mix works well.Can lightweight concrete be under mixed ?
The cement and water slurry should be mixed until there are no dry clumps or balls of cement. The pre-formed foam mixture is then added into the mixture. The foam mixes quite rapidly into the slurry and only requires modest mixing times depending upon the mixing equipment.Can cellular concrete be over mixed ?
Mixing until there is a reduction of volume of product is not recommended. Air cell stability is the mark of our liquid foam concentrates and our Foam Generators. With typical mixing procedures, lightweight concrete formulated with pre-formed foam is very stable even with modestly extended mixing times.How far can lightweight concrete be pumped ?
Lightweight concrete is a very easily pumped, highly fluid mixture. The bulk of lightweight concrete is placed by pumping. Lightweight concrete typically will move through the pump lines using less pressure than typical heavier grout mixesHow do you finish lightweight concrete ?
Most lightweight concrete is left to self-seek a level and not surface "finished" in the traditional sense. Much lightweight concrete is covered by another material. A floor overlayment type smoother tool can be used simply to break the surface air cells and create a more uniform and polished look to the surface in the rare case when a more uniform surface appearance is desired.How do I test lightweight concrete to determine it is performing to specs ?
Test procedures for lightweight concrete are beyond the scope of this FAQ document; however, lightweight concrete representatives will be happy to assist you in the actual testing or furnishing descriptions of common tests. Properties commonly tested are for its compressive strength The majority of regular concrete produced is in the density range of 2400 kg permeter cube. The last decade has seen great strides in the realm of dense concrete and fantastic compressive strengths which mix designers have been achieved. Yet regular concrete has some drawbacks. It is heavy, hard to work with, and after it sets, one cannot be cut or nailed into it without some difficulty or use of special tools. Some complaints about it include the perception that it is cold and damp. Still, it is a remarkable building material - fluid, strong, relatively cheap, and environmentally innocuous and available in almost every part of the world. Lightweight concrete begins in the density range of less than 300 kg/m3 to 1800 kg per/m3. It has traditionally been made using such aggregates as expanded shale, clay, vermiculite, pumice, and scoria among others. Each has their peculiarities in handling, especially the volcanic aggregates which need careful moisture monitoring and are difficult to pump. Decreasing the weight and density produces significant changes which improves many properties of concrete, both in placement and application. Although this has been accomplished primarily through the use of lightweight aggregates, since 1960 various preformed foams have been added to mixes, further reducing weight. The very lightest mixes (from 300 kg /m3 to 800 kg / m3) are often made using only foam as the sand and aggregate are eliminated, and are referred to as floating lightweight concrete. The entrapped air takes the form of small, macroscopic, spherically shaped bubbles uniformly dispersed in the concrete mix. Today foams are available which have a high degree of compatibility with many of the admixtures currently used in modern concrete mix designs. Foam used with either lightweight aggregates and/or admixtures such as fly ash, silica fume, synthetic fiber reinforcement, and high range water reducers (aka superplasticizers), has produced a new hybrid of concrete called lightweight concrete materials. For the most part, implementation of Lightweight Composite design and construction utilizes existing technology. Its uniqueness, however, is the novel combination drawing from several fields at once: architecture, mix design chemistry, structural engineering, and concrete placement.
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